The reading comprehension portion of the LSAT consists
of four passages, each about 500 words long and each with
about seven questions. The subject matter of a passage
can be almost anything, but the most common themes are
politics, history, culture, and science.
LSAT
TEST READING METHODS
Some
books recommend speed-reading the passages. This is a
mistake. Speed reading is designed for ordinary, nontechnical
material. Because this material is filled with "fluff,"
you can skim over the nonessential parts and still get
the gist--and often more--of the passage. However, LSAT
passages are dense. Some are actual quoted articles. Most
often, however, they are based on articles that have been
condensed to about one-third their original length. During
this process no essential information is lost, just the
"fluff" is cut. This is why speed reading will not work
here--the passages contain too much information. You should,
however, read somewhat faster than you normally do, but
not to the point that your comprehension suffers. You
will have to experiment to find your optimum pace.
Many
books recommend reading the questions before the passage.
But there are two big problems with this method. First,
some of the questions are a paragraph long, and reading
a question twice can use up precious time. Second, there
are up to seven questions per passage, and psychologists
have shown that we can hold in our minds a maximum of
about three thoughts at any one time (some of us have
trouble simply remembering phone numbers). After reading
all seven questions, the student will turn to the passage
with his mind clouded by half-remembered thoughts. This
will at best waste his time and distract him. More likely
it will turn the passage into a disjointed mass of information.
However,
one technique that you may find helpful is to preview
the passage by reading the first sentence of each paragraph.
Generally, the topic of a paragraph is contained in the
first sentence. Reading the first sentence of each paragraph
will give an overview of the passage. The topic sentences
act in essence as a summary of the passage. Furthermore,
since each passage is only three or four paragraphs long,
previewing the topic sentences will not use up an inordinate
amount of time.
THE
SIX KEY LSAT TEST QUESTIONS
The
key to performing well on the passages is not the particular
reading technique you use (so long as it's neither speed
reading nor pre-reading the questions). Rather the key
is to become completely familiar with the question types--there
are only six--so that you can anticipate the questions
that might be asked as you read the passage and answer
those that are asked more quickly and efficiently. As
you become familiar with the six question types, you will
gain an intuitive sense for the places from which questions
are likely to be drawn. This will give you the same advantage
as that claimed by the "pre-reading-the-questions" technique,
without the confusion and waste of time. Note, the order
in which the questions are asked roughly corresponds to
the order in which the main issues are presented in the
passage. Early questions should correspond to information
given early in the passage, and so on.
The
following passage and accompanying questions illustrate
the six question types.
There
are two major systems of criminal procedure in the modern
world--the adversarial and the inquisitorial. The former
is associated with common law tradition and the latter
with civil law tradition. Both systems were historically
preceded by the system of private vengeance in which the
victim of a crime fashioned his own remedy and administered
it privately, either personally or through an agent. The
vengeance system was a system of self-help, the essence
of which was captured in the slogan "an eye for an eye,
a tooth for a tooth." The modern adversarial system is
only one historical step removed from the private vengeance
system and still retains some of its characteristic features.
Thus, for example, even though the right to institute
criminal action has now been extended to all members of
society and even though the police department has taken
over the pretrial investigative functions on behalf of
the prosecution, the adversarial system still leaves the
defendant to conduct his own pretrial investigation. The
trial is still viewed as a duel between two adversaries,
refereed by a judge who, at the beginning of the trial
has no knowledge of the investigative background of the
case. In the final analysis the adversarial system of
criminal procedure symbolizes and regularizes the punitive
combat.
By
contrast, the inquisitorial system begins historically
where the adversarial system stopped its development.
It is two historical steps removed from the system of
private vengeance. Therefore, from the standpoint of legal
anthropology, it is historically superior to the adversarial
system. Under the inquisitorial system the public investigator
has the duty to investigate not just on behalf of the
prosecutor but also on behalf of the defendant. Additionally,
the public prosecutor has the duty to present to the court
not only evidence that may lead to the conviction of the
defendant but also evidence that may lead to his exoneration.
This system mandates that both parties permit full pretrial
discovery of the evidence in their possession. Finally,
in an effort to make the trial less like a duel between
two adversaries, the inquisitorial system mandates that
the judge take an active part in the conduct of the trial,
with a role that is both directive and protective.
Fact-finding
is at the heart of the inquisitorial system. This system
operates on the philosophical premise that in a criminal
case the crucial factor is not the legal rule but the
facts of the case and that the goal of the entire procedure
is to experimentally recreate for the court the commission
of the alleged crime.
LSAT
TEST MAIN IDEA QUESTIONS
The
main idea is usually stated in the last--occasionally
the first--sentence of the first paragraph. If it's not
there, it will probably be the last sentence of the entire
passage.
Because
main idea questions are relatively easy, the LSAT writers
try to obscure the correct answer by surrounding it with
close answer-choices ("detractors") that either overstate
or understate the author's main point. Answer-choices
that stress specifics tend to understate the main idea;
choices that go beyond the scope of the passage tend to
overstate the main idea.
The
answer to a main idea question will summarize the author's
argument, yet be neither too specific nor too broad.
Example:
(Refer to the first passage.)
The
primary purpose of the passage is to
(A)
explain why the inquisitorial system is the best system
of criminal justice
(B) explain how the adversarial and the inquisitorial
systems of criminal justice both evolved from the system
of private vengeance
(C) show how the adversarial and inquisitorial systems
of criminal justice can both complement and hinder each
other's development
(D) show how the adversarial and inquisitorial systems
of criminal justice are being combined into a new and
better system
(E) analyze two systems of criminal justice and deduce
which one is better
The
answer to a main idea question will summarize the passage
without going beyond it. (A) violates these criteria by
overstating the scope of the passage. The comparison in
the passage is between two specific systems, not between
all systems. (A) would be a good answer if "best" were
replaced with "better." Beware of extreme words.
(B) violates the criteria by understating the scope of
the passage. Although the evolution of both the adversarial
and the inquisitorial systems is discussed in the passage,
it is done to show why one is superior to the other. As
to (C) and (D), both can be quickly dismissed since neither
is mentioned in the passage. Finally, the passage does
two things: it presents two systems of criminal justice
and shows why one is better than the other. (E) aptly
summarizes this, so it is the best answer.
Description
Questions
Description
questions, as with main idea questions, refer to a point
made by the author. However, description questions refer
to a minor point or to incidental information, not to
the author's main point.
The
answer to a description question must refer directly to
a statement in the passage, not to something implied by
it. However, the correct answer will paraphrase a statement
in the passage, not give an exact quote. In fact, exact
quotes ("Same language" traps) are often used to bait
wrong answers.
Caution:
When answering a description question, you must find the
point in the passage from which the question is drawn.
Don't rely on memory--too many obfuscating tactics are
used with these questions.
Not
only must the correct answer refer directly to a statement
in the passage, it must refer to the relevant statement.
The correct answer will be surrounded by wrong choices
which refer directly to the passage but don't address
the question. These choices can be tempting because they
tend to be quite close to the actual answer.
Once
you spot the sentence to which the question refers, you
still must read a few sentences before and after it, to
put the question in context. If a question refers to line
20, the information needed to answer it can occur anywhere
from line 15 to 25. Even if you have spotted the answer
in line 20, you should still read a couple more lines
to make certain you have the proper perspective.
Example:
(Refer to the first passage.)
According
to the passage, the inquisitorial system differs from
the adversarial system in that
(A)
it does not make the defendant solely responsible for
gathering evidence for his case
(B) it does not require the police department to work
on behalf of the prosecution
(C) it does not allow the victim the satisfaction of private
vengeance
(D) it requires the prosecution to drop a weak case
(E) a defendant who is innocent would prefer to be tried
under the inquisitorial system
This
is a description question, so the information needed to
answer it must be stated in the passage--though not in
the same language as in the answer. The needed information
is contained in the fourth sentence of Paragraph 3, which
states that the public prosecutor has to investigate on
behalf of both society and the defendant. Thus, the defendant
is not solely responsible for investigating his case.
Furthermore, the paragraph's opening implies that this
feature is not found in the adversarial system. This illustrates
why you must determine the context of the situation before
you can safely answer the question. The answer is (A).
Writing
Technique Questions on the LSAT TEST
All
coherent writing has a superstructure or blueprint. When
writing, we don't just randomly jot down our thoughts;
we organize our ideas and present them in a logical manner.
For instance, we may present evidence that builds up to
a conclusion but intentionally leave the conclusion unstated,
or we may present a position and then contrast it with
an opposing position, or we may draw an extended analogy.
There
is an endless number of writing techniques that authors
use to present their ideas, so we cannot classify every
method. However, some techniques are very common to the
type of explanatory or opinionated writing found in LSAT
passages.
A.
Compare and contrast two positions.
This
technique has a number of variations, but the most common
and direct is to develop two ideas or systems (comparing)
and then point out why one is better than the other (contrasting).
Writing-technique
questions are similar to main idea questions; except that
they ask about how the author presents his ideas, not
about the ideas themselves. Generally, you will be given
only two writing methods to choose from, but each method
will have two or more variations.
Example:
(Refer to the first passage.)
Which
one of the following best describes the organization of
the passage?
(A)
Two systems of criminal justice are compared and contrasted,
and one is deemed to be better than the other.
(B) One system of criminal justice is presented as better
than another. Then evidence is offered to support that
claim.
(C) Two systems of criminal justice are analyzed, and
one specific example is examined in detail.
(D) A set of examples is furnished. Then a conclusion
is drawn from them.
(E) The inner workings of the criminal justice system
are illustrated by using two systems.
Clearly
the author is comparing and contrasting two criminal justice
systems. Indeed, the opening to paragraph two makes this
explicit. The author uses a mixed form of comparison and
contrast. He opens the passage by developing (comparing)
both systems and then shifts to developing just the adversarial
system. He opens the second paragraph by contrasting the
two criminal justice systems and then further develops
just the inquisitorial system. Finally, he closes by again
contrasting the two systems and implying that the inquisitorial
system is superior.
Only
two answer-choices, (A) and (B), have any real merit.
They say essentially the same thing--though in different
order. Notice in the passage that the author does not
indicate which system is better until the end of paragraph
one, and he does not make that certain until paragraph
two. This contradicts the order given by (B). Hence the
answer is (A). (Note: In (A) the order is not specified
and therefore is harder to attack, whereas in (B) the
order is definite and therefore is easier to attack. Remember
that a measured response is harder to attack and therefore
is more likely to be the answer.)
B.
Show cause and effect.
In
this technique, the author typically shows how a particular
cause leads to a certain result or set of results. It
is not uncommon for this method to introduce a sequence
of causes and effects. A causes B, which causes C, which
causes D, and so on. Hence B is both the effect of A and
the cause of C.
Example:
(Mini-passage)
Thirdly,
I worry about the private automobile. It is a dirty, noisy,
wasteful, and lonely means of travel. It pollutes the
air, ruins the safety and sociability of the street, and
exercises upon the individual a discipline which takes
away far more freedom than it gives him. It causes an
enormous amount of land to be unnecessarily abstracted
from nature and from plant life and to become devoid of
any natural function. It explodes cities, grievously impairs
the whole institution of neighborliness, fragmentizes
and destroys communities. It has already spelled the end
of our cities as real cultural and social communities,
and has made impossible the construction of any others
in their place. Together with the airplane, it has crowded
out other, more civilized and more convenient means of
transport, leaving older people, infirm people, poor people
and children in a worse situation than they were a hundred
years ago. It continues to lend a terrible element of
fragility to our civilization, placing us in a situation
where our life would break down completely if anything
ever interfered with the oil supply.
George
F. Kennan
Which
of the following best describes the organization of the
passage?
(A)
A problem is presented and then a possible solution is
discussed.
(B) The benefits and demerits of the automobile are compared
and contrasted.
(C) A topic is presented and a number of its effects are
discussed.
(D) A set of examples is furnished to support a conclusion.
This
passage is laden with effects. Kennan introduces the cause,
the automobile, in the opening sentence and from there
on presents a series of effects--the automobile pollutes,
enslaves, and so on. Hence the answer is (C). Note: (D)
is the second-best choice; it is disqualified by two flaws.
First, in this context, "examples" is not as precise as
"effects." Second, the order is wrong: the conclusion,
"I worry about the private automobile" is presented first
and then the examples: it pollutes, it enslaves, etc.
C.
State a position and then give supporting evidence.
This
technique is common with opinionated passages. Equally
common is the reverse order. That is, the supporting evidence
is presented and then the position or conclusion is stated.
And sometimes the evidence will be structured to build
up to a conclusion which is then left unstated. If this
is done skillfully the reader will be more likely to arrive
at the same conclusion as the author.
Extension
Questions
Extension
questions are the most common. They require you to go
beyond what is stated in the passage, asking you to draw
an inference from the passage, to make a conclusion based
on the passage, or to identify one of the author's tacit
assumptions.
Since
extension questions require you to go beyond the passage,
the correct answer must say more than what is said in
the passage. Beware of same language traps with these
questions: the correct answer will often both paraphrase
and extend a statement in the passage, but it will not
directly quote it.
"Same
Language" traps: For extension questions, any answer-choice
that explicitly refers to or repeats a statement in the
passage will probably be wrong.
The
correct answer to an extension question will not require
a quantum leap in thought, but it will add significantly
to the ideas presented in the passage.
Example:
(Refer to the first passage.)
The
author views the prosecution's role in the inquisitorial
system as being
(A)
an advocate for both society and the defendant
(B) solely responsible for starting a trial
(C) a protector of the legal rule
(D) an investigator only
(E) an aggressive but fair investigator
This
is an extension question. So the answer will not be explicitly
stated in the passage, but it will be strongly supported
by it.
The
author states that the prosecutor is duty bound to present
any evidence that may prove the defendant innocent and
that he must disclose all pretrial evidence (i.e., have
no tricks up his sleeve). This is the essence of fair
play. The answer is (E).
LSAT
Application Questions
Application
questions differ from extension questions only in degree.
Extension questions ask you to apply what you have learned
from the passage to derive new information about the same
subject, whereas application questions go one step further,
asking you to apply what you have learned from the passage
to a different or hypothetical situation.
To
answer an application question, take the author's perspective.
Ask yourself: what am I arguing for? what might make my
argument stronger? what might make it weaker?
Example:
(Refer to the first passage.)
Based
on the information in the passage, it can be inferred
that which one of the following would most logically begin
a paragraph immediately following the passage?
(A)
Because of the inquisitorial system's thoroughness in
conducting its pretrial investigation, it can be concluded
that a defendant who is innocent would prefer to be tried
under the inquisitorial system, whereas a defendant who
is guilty would prefer to be tried under the adversarial
system.
(B) As the preceding analysis shows, the legal system
is in a constant state of flux. For now the inquisitorial
system is ascendant, but it will probably be soon replaced
by another system.
(C) The accusatorial system begins where the inquisitorial
system ends. So it is three steps removed from the system
of private vengeance, and therefore historically superior
to it.
(D) Because in the inquisitorial system the judge must
take an active role in the conduct of the trial, his competency
and expertise have become critical.
(E) The criminal justice system has evolved to the point
that it no longer seems to be derivative of the system
of private vengeance. Modern systems of criminal justice
empower all of society with the right to instigate a legal
action, and the need for vengeance is satisfied through
a surrogate--the public prosecutor.
The
author has rather thoroughly presented his position, so
the next paragraph would be a natural place for him to
summarize it. The passage compares and contrasts two systems
of criminal justice, implying that the inquisitorial system
is superior. We expect the concluding paragraph to sum
up this position. Now all legal theory aside, the system
of justice under which an innocent person would choose
to be judged would, as a practical matter, pretty much
sum up the situation. Hence the answer is (A).
Tone
Questions
Tone
questions ask you to identify the writer's attitude or
perspective. Is the writer's feeling toward the subject
positive, negative, or neutral? Does the writer give his
own opinion, or does he objectively present the opinions
of others?
Before
you read the answer-choices, decide whether the writer's
tone is positive, negative, or neutral. It is best to
do this without referring to the passage.
However,
if you did not get a feel for the writer's attitude on
the first reading, check the adjectives that he chooses.
Adjectives and, to a lesser extent, adverbs express our
feelings toward subjects. For instance, if we agree with
a person who holds strong feelings about a subject, we
may describe his opinions as impassioned. On the other
hand, if we disagree with him, we may describe his opinions
as excitable, which has the same meaning as "impassioned"
but carries a negative connotation.
Example:
(Refer to the first passage.)
The
author's attitude toward the adversarial system can best
be described as
(A)
encouraged that it is far removed from the system of private
vengeance
(B) concerned that it does not allow all members of society
to instigate legal action
(C) pleased that it does not require the defendant to
conduct his own pretrial investigation
(D) hopeful that it will be replaced by the inquisitorial
system
(E) doubtful that it is the best vehicle for justice
The
author does not reveal his feelings toward the adversarial
system until the end of paragraph one. Clearly the clause
"the adversarial system of criminal procedure symbolizes
and regularizes the punitive combat" indicates that he
has a negative attitude toward the system. This is confirmed
in the second paragraph when he states that the inquisitorial
system is historically superior to the adversarial system.
So he feels that the adversarial system is deficient.
The
"two-out-of-five" rule is at work here: only choices (D)
and (E) have any real merit. Both are good answers. But
which one is better? Intuitively, choice (E) is more likely
to be the answer because it is more measured. To decide
between two choices attack each: the one that survives
is the answer. Now a tone question should be answered
from what is directly stated in the passage--not from
what it implies. Although the author has reservations
toward the adversarial system, at no point does he say
that he hopes the inquisitorial system will replace it,
he may prefer a third system over both. This eliminates
(D); the answer therefore is (E).
PIVOTAL
WORDS
As
mentioned before, each passage contains 200 to 600 words
and only four to seven questions, so you will not be tested
on most of the material in the passage. Your best reading
strategy, therefore, is to identify the places from which
questions will most likely be drawn and concentrate your
attention there.
Pivotal
words can help in this regard. Following are the most
common pivotal words.
Pivotal
Words
| But |
Although |
| However |
Yet |
| Despite |
Nevertheless |
| Nonetheless |
Except |
| In
contrast |
Even
though |
As
you may have noticed, these words indicate contrast. Pivotal
words warn that the author is about to either make a U-turn
or introduce a counter-premise (concession to a minor
point that weakens the argument).
Example:
(Counter-premise)
I
submit that the strikers should accept the management's
offer. Admittedly, it is less than what was demanded.
But it does resolve the main grievance--inadequate health
care. Furthermore, an independent study shows that a wage
increase greater than 5% would leave the company unable
to compete against Japan and Germany, forcing it into
bankruptcy.
The
conclusion, "the strikers should accept the management's
offer," is stated in the first sentence. Then "Admittedly"
introduces a concession (counter-premise); namely, that
the offer was less than what was demanded. This weakens
the speaker's case, but it addresses a potential criticism
of his position before it can be made. The last two sentences
of the argument present more compelling reasons to accept
the offer and form the gist of the argument.
Pivotal
words mark natural places for questions to be drawn. At
a pivotal word, the author changes direction. The LSAT
writers form questions at these junctures to test whether
you turned with the author or you continued to go straight.
Rarely do the LSAT writers let a pivotal word pass without
drawing a question from its sentence.
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